Human rights in Iraq after the war Essay Example for Free

Human rights in Iraq after the war Essay The Americans are fairly blunt about promoting their corporate interests. A USAid spokeswoman was quoted recently pointing out that it should not come as a surprise that all of the companies short listed for work in Iraq are American. Her advice to non American companies is to pressurize their own governments. And this is driving the agenda of the European Union meeting in Brussels. President Chirac and others opposed to war have declared that while they condemn this war, they are willing to work with the UK and US on the reconstruction of Iraq. No doubt the popular sentiment in Europe favours providing support to the Iraqi people after a terrible devastation has been wrecked upon them. However, these governments are also under pressure to provide a role for their corporations in post war Iraq, a resource rich country. Thus, before the war has ended, the more divisive fight over the spoils of war has already started. In the now marginalized United Nations lies France and Germanys best hopes of making the division of the loot somewhat egalitarian. But the Americans are prepared, more than ever, to brush away the UN, and impose direct rule on iraq. The British are hoping to receive their fair share of the crumbs for their loyalty. However, this comes at the heavy cost of alienating Britain from the rest of Europe. It is likely that this battle to divide the spoils will lead to important decisions concerning the future of the United Nations as well as the future relationship between America, Britain and Europe. OREND’S THEORY ON RECONSTRUCTION ON THE BASIS OF HUMAN RIGHTS All human beings have human rights. However, human rights do not necessarily embrace anything and everything the anybody wants. Human rights are merely limited to those things which are both vitally needed and which can be provided at reasonable cost. A claim is at the core of any right, and that a claim is necessarily a claim on someone or something, in connection with some sought-after action or benefit, some good or policy. There is no such thing as a holder of a right without a correlative bearing any duty. The acts of the US and UK in Iraq after war can be considered as too much abuse to the basic human rights of the Iraqis. The Reconstruction being done to foster an economic advantage deprives the Iraqi of their basic economic benefits necessary to alleviate their lives. There is a plain disregard of a multi-aspect needs of the Iraqis for preservation, liberation, unification, democratization, and self-identity. The reconstruction projects are simply not directed towards the development and enhancement of the fundamentals of human existence and human rights. The excessive desire of the US government for profit and gains violates the basic principle of human rights, as according to Professor Orend, that is to love a â€Å"minimally decent lives†. Professor Orend holds a human right to be â€Å"a high-priority claim, or authoritative entitlement, justified by sufficient reasons, to a set of objects that are owed to each human person as a matter of minimally decent treatment†. He then asserts that to hold human rights â€Å"one must be biologically human, one must avoid violating another’s human rights, and one must have fundamental interests in, or vital needs for, living a life of minimal value. † Both formulations are valuable definitions and form a strong basis upon which to ground claims of rights. This requires a life that does not yearn for any excessive economic gains and benefits, unlike what the US Government and its cronies are manifesting. A life of simplicity within the level of a minimally decent lives requires only just enough resources to support the basic services and development of the State. It does not necessarily imply taking advantage of another’s ordeal just to promote one’s excessive economic needs. Orend shows who bears what duties in relation to human rights, questioning whether individuals or institutions are responsible for ensuring human rights. Orend concludes that both institutions and individuals bear responsibility for ensuring human rights on both a national and international level. This duty, he argues, directly correlates to one’s ability to affect human rights. So, while the duty of an individual is different from the duty of a multinational corporation, which in turn is different from the duty of a nation or international institution, all of these entities are responsible for ensuring that human rights are respected. Following on from this, Orend argues that post war reconstruction must occur via the established media of international law and governance but with the added insights of practices such as philosophy, human rights, history, public policy, and political science. It cannot be simply held and carried out purely for purposes of gains. There must be concerted and united efforts of all institutions and individuals of the word to perform their respective duty proceeding from the basic moral duty of respecting the basic dignity and rights of the Iraqis. All aspects must be duly considered in order to come up to a broader and complete plan of binging in reconstruction in Iraq. References: 1. 1. Fagan, Andrew. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Human Rights. Human Rights Center: University of Essex. 2006. http://www. iep. utm. edu/h/hum-rts. htm 2. Orend, Brian. Human Rights: Concept and Context. Petersburg, Ontario: Broadview Press, 2002. http://www. du. edu/gsis/hrhw/booknotes/2004/zwiebach-2004. html.

Development of Diabetes Register

Development of Diabetes Register The national DEMS aims to support diabetic health professionals in providing real-time information when and where it is required. Electronic medical records (EMRs) are an important means of enhancing patient wellbeing through inaccuracy reduction and to enhance clinical care quality (Lester, Zai et al. 2008). EMRs have previously been effective in refining diabetes management and enhancing organizing of care among multi disciplinary teams (Lester, Zai et al. 2008). Accomplishing interoperability between EHRs and registries will be progressively more vital as the utilisation of registries and EHRs develops considerably (Gliklich and Dreyner 2010). The typical viewpoint regarding establishing a diabetes register is by assembling electronic patient files held by GPs medical centre’s of diabetic patients (Morris, Boyle et al. 1997). Another alternative is to gather patient records electronically from multi sources to a central source in order to achieve a more comprehensive register (Morris, Boyle et al. 1997). When setting up a diabetes register it should be carried out according to NICE guidelines which include: â€Å"Patients demographics adjustable risk factors medicine prescribed Attendance at practice or diabetes outpatient clinic† (OKelly, Foy et al. 2008). The set of accessible data sources is the most important factor in determining the capabilities of disease surveillance system. The purposed Irish diabetes register will utilise information from PCRS and NCSS data sources. PCRS contains information regarding prescribed drugs and medicines typically taken by diabetics such as statins (cholesterol lowering medications) this information is gotten from the General Medical Services Scheme. T2D patients can be identified by their need to use oral diabetes prescriptions such as oral anti-hyperglcaemic which can be taken on their own or with insulin (OShea, Teeling et al. 2013). The scheme affords entitled persons access to free health care as well as prescription medication (OShea, Teeling et al. 2013). The PCRS gathers the information on â€Å"dispensed prescribed medication† a monthly basis from the scheme, these medications† are coded using the WHO Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification system† (OShea, Te eling et al. 2013). As well as checking these data sources, hospital diabetic clinics might contain patients not already on the national register. â€Å"Patients with medication treating T2D can be identified using the prescription of oral anti-hyperglycaemic agents alone or in combination with insulin as a proxy for disease diagnosis†. Diabetes register aids the identification and tracking of clinical outcome (Lester, Zai et al. 2008). The registry can be kept up-to-date in an automatic manner when run against laboratory results and GP practice EMR (Lester, Zai et al. 2008). The registry needs to up-to-date and not to contain stagnat data. Initially is it perceived that there will be two data sources: NCCS and PCRS. Hospital diabetes clinics – extracted to register Regarding the laboratory system, patient whose records contained information regarding glycated haemogloblin, plasma glucose, urinary microalbumin and serum creatinine were considered to be diabetes as well as oral glucose tolerance test confirming the diagnosis of diabetes or outpatient plasma glucose concentration of greater than 11.1 mmol/l (Morris, Boyle et al. 1997). All laboratory results applicable to diabetes care are available electronically; patients could be identified and included in the register. Registries typically gather information from various data sources, this is typically done by collecting information from various sources and linking the information across data sources, either with identifiers intended for linking or by recorded attributes of the patients to whom the information match up to (Gliklich and NA 2010). Most general method for record linkage typically depends on the presence of unique identifiers (Gliklich and Dreyner 2010). Once verified that the information is correct, it will be necessary to verify that the data can be uploaded correctly onto the Diabetes register. Look at hipe extract as an example Gathering of data from an assortment of data sources capitalizes on the available data on each diabetic patient and ensures comprehensiveness. The National Cancer Screening programme/ schemes provide data on . Data includes demographics, history of, treatment. This data is stored electronically on NCCS database whish a password protected designed database. The hospital system has a record of patients registered Duplicate patients records are avoided by the use of an report based on similar surnames, forenames and hospital numbers. Data of birth comparison. As data is collected from a number of sources it necessary to remove duplicate records. â€Å"Currently there is no unique number assigned to individuals accessing health and social care in Ireland which would enable the accurate identification of individuals†. â€Å"Therefore cases are cross-matched from the different data sources. A range of variables, including names, gender, county of residence, data of birth are used to match the data†. [dissertation Benefits realization information technology in a national surveillance system, Patient demographics download All systems to remain in sync. A patient enters a hospital is registered on the PIMS and that information is then sent to laboratory system. Healthlink server , the vendor provides the code handles how the file gets sent from nimis software suite The laboratory system requires an interface to PAS system to enable demographics and clinical information for common patients to be shared between the two systems. HL7 interface facilitates the transfer of demographic information between the PAS and laboratory systems. Information from PAS is extracted and formatted using iSoft Integration Engine. The laboratory system will communicate with the Integration Engine using HL7 messaging over TCP/IP sockets Patient information is entered or modified in PAS. The resultant transaction is recorded in PAS audit service. The audit service is continually monitored by iSoft Integration Engine which is configured to look for relevant transactions. For each transaction, the associated information is extracted from PAS and formed into the appropriate HL7 message for immediate onward transmission to laboratory system. The laboratory interface continually listens for HL7 messages from PAS. When a message is received it is analysed to check its purpose and check that the information is correct. If the patient number referenced in the message is unknown to laboratory system then the patient will be registered otherwise the patient details will be updated based on the contents of the message. Systolic blood pressure Diastolic blood pressure HbA1c Creatinine Microalbumin Patients attending Hospital diabetes clinics, Graphically representation on the main screen. Health care professionals perceive that there is not enough time in the day to carry out their workload. There needs to be effort made to ensure quick data review and efficient action (Lester, Zai et al. 2008). A graph will be generated to display on screen to demonstrate changes in weight and blood pressure to emphasize the importance of the data. The report function enables automatic printout of letters to GPs, episode details and annual review for filing in the patients case notes, referral letters to other specialities. Auditing All transactions within the system will be audited. This means that transactions will be recorded with a snapshot of the data and the user performing the action. The system needs an audit function to facilitate audit. Validation Data entry validation are used to minimize the risk of errors; duplication entries. Performance The system will be utilised on the National Health Network which will facilitate reliable and robust network on which the system to work on.

A Comparison of Othello and the Movie O Essay -- Movie Film comparison

A Comparison of Othello and the Movie O When Shakespeare composed the tragedy Othello televisions were not. Along with no televisions, life in the late 1500s had many different qualities than it does today. This time period had no war on drugs and no high school shootings. Peer pressure was not an issue. The audiences of Othello in the 1500s did not face the circumstances that we, American high school students, face today. With these significant differences in daily life, come the attempts of movie creators to help prevent our modern day tragedies. The movie "O", released on August 31, 2001, is a retelling of Shakespeare's Othello set in a college prepatory school. This movie, shelved over two years due to the epidemic of high school shootings in the late 1990s, is an attempt to take in hand these disasters caused by peer pressure and jealousy (Kurnit). "O" is an effective restoration of Shakespeare's Othello in this day and age as it addresses issues that are imperative and dangerous to its audience. Jealousy is a dominating factor in both the modern day and Shakespearean Othello. In Othello, the jealousy develops from Iago, who thinks he has been overlooked as his flag officer and as Othello's loyal best friend. In "O", Hugo is jealous of his father's relationship with Odin. Hugo's father, Duke, is also the basketball coach of the team both Odin and Hugo play for. Odin is the team captain and receives the "most valuable player" award which he shares with his "go-to guy," Mike--not Hugo. Hugo believes that he is the M.V.P. of the Hawks and is filled with jealousy when his father gives the award to Odin and says, "I'm very proud to say this publicly, I love him like my own son" ("O"). I've ... ...ence more reasoning to the jealousy of the characters and the actions they take. With the changed setting come many differences: drugs and alcohol, peer pressure, violence, and different sources for jealousy and hatred. These issues are the dilemmas we, as teenagers in this new millennium, are faced with day to day. "O" addresses these new era evils without abandoning the original themes and major issues of Shakespeare's Othello. The audience can relate to a story written down hundreds of years ago and benefit from it. Works Cited Hartnett, Josh. Interview following "O". 23 March 2010 Kurnit, Scott. "O" movie review. www.romanticmovies.about.com 20 March 2010 List of School Shootings. www.abcnews.com 20 March 2010 Nelson, Tim Blake. Interview folloing "O". 23 March 2010 "O". dvd. Dir. Tim Blake Nelson, Lions Gate Films, 2001 Â  

Effect of violence seen on Television Essay -- essays research papers

The Effects of Violence Seen on Television   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One Saturday morning when I was five years old, I was watching an episode of the Roadrunner on television. As Wile Coyote was pushed off a cliff by the roadrunner for the fourth or fifth time, I started laughing uncontrollably. I then watched a Bugs Bunny show and started laughing whenever I saw Elmer Fudd shoot Daffy Duck and his bill went twirling around his head. The next day, I pushed my brother off a cliff and shot my dog to see ifs its head would twirl around.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obviously, the last sentence is not true. The example above is an exaggeration of the effects of violence on television can have on children. To a five-year-old child, Daffy Duck and Bugs Bunny are the pinnacle of â€Å"cool,† and they see nothing wrong with the violent stunts seen on television. The average child watches about two and half hours of television a day and witnesses twenty violent acts on those television shows each hour. In most actions movies, there is always a bad guy and a good guy. From observation of children, most children would prefer to be the bad guy because â€Å"the bad guy gets to the cool stuff,† as one child told me whom I was babysitting when I asked him why he wanted to be the evil monster in Power Rangers Dinothunder movie. What kinds of problems is this causing for our youth?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Children often behave differently after they have watched violent programs on tel...

Dred Scott vs John Sandford (the United States) Essay

The Scott vs. Sandford case was an extremely historical event in the United States because this was the first time a slave tried to sue his owner for his freedom. Like every other court case in the U.S. there was the Defendant, the Plaintiff, and the Judge. The issue was brought to court by the plaintiff, Dred Scott, a slave with a wife and two daughters, who argued that his service for his first owner, Dr. Emerson, in Illinois, a state from which slavery has been excluded by the Missouri Compromise, made him a free man with full rights as any other American citizen. But Dred didn’t stay in Illinois, he returned with his owner, Dr. Emerson, to Missouri where Plaintiff was sold to Sandford, the defendant in this case. Dred sued Sandford for his freedom, claiming to be a citizen of the United States. John Sandford, a slave owner in the 1800’s was also accused of beating his slave family for no reason and depriving Dred and his family of their liberty; Dred considering him self a citizen of the United States. The third important person in this case was the Chief Justice, which was judge Roger B. Taney. Both sides had laws to back their sides. Missouri for example has laws banning slavery in their state, so Dred Scott is basing his case on that fact. He also sued the United States for his freedom, claiming to be a citizen of Missouri, based on having obtained freedom by living there, in a free state, for a long period of time. In court, Sandford which was represented by The United States, denied the violent actions and said that he did not beat his slaves he just handled them in a firm but gentle way. He also argued Dred is still a slave because he was born and bought in the south and was considered property. Since he was moved as property to the North his status of property couldn’t change. Another problem Dred had to face because he was considered property was the fact that he couldn’t bring issues to court. Based on the way they were thinking back then, this whole case shouldn’t even exist in the first place. The important issue of the case was if it was possible for a slave to be considered a citizen because he lived in a free state. If he was still considered a slave, slavery could exist in the north, where they didn’t accept slavery, as long as the slave was born and bought in the south, where they were encouraging and still practicing slavery. In the Constitution it says that every citizen has the right to sue in court so another reason why this was such a big decision was that the Supreme Court had to decide if  Congress had the power to decide if a black man was a citizen. Did Congress have the power to prohibit slavery? No. Can a slave be considered a citizen and as such become entitled to all the rights, privileges and immunities granted to citizens under the United States Constitution? No, and Dred did not become free by going into a state, which prohibited slavery. Therefore the Supreme court decided that Sandford was not guilty and that Scott, as a slave, had no right to sue his owner since ‘it’ was his property. The court ended up having a vote 7-2 against Dred Scott implying that he was not a U.S. citizen. The decision the Supreme Court made was a violation of the Missouri Compromise, but their reasoning was that they said that it was unconstitutional. That caused anger in the North, which eventually led to the Civil War. This is the the reason why this case is also called the Case which started the Civil War.

U of P / Eth 316 / Ethics Essay

ETH 316 August 22, 2011 Ethics Essay Utilitarianism Utilitarianism ethics emphasize that action should be morally beneficial to a group. This course of ethics is often known as â€Å"the greatest good for the greatest number† or simply put, â€Å"the greater good† (Boylan, 2009). In other words, the consequence of any ethical action should be beneficial for all by mass appeal. This is a common underlying theme for ethics in capitalist economies and business as well as in democratic governments (Boylan, 2009). Virtue Theory Virtue theory, also known as virtue ethics, focuses more so on the character of a person rather than the rules and consequences of specific acts. What this essentially means is that the primary focus is whether or not the person acting ethically is a person who upholds high morals and virtues, in turn expressing â€Å"good character† (Garrett, 2005). Rules, intent, consequences and outcome are not necessarily irrelevant; however, the emphasis of virtue theory is primarily on a person’s character, their virtues, and their expression of good intentions (Garrett, 2005). Deontology Unlike virtue theory, deontology has a heavy emphasis on duty in action, in adherence to rules. The right action is important here, where upon completion, should bring about the greatest good for all involved. This is somewhat similar to utilitarianism, which does focus on the consequence of the greatest good. However, deontology does not lean on the consequence itself, but more so the principle behind committing the right action. (Boylan, 2009). In turn, the ethics behind deontology is about principle and following rules. Similarity Between Theories All three of these ethical practices have tangible similarities. The primary similarity is consequence of action. Even though consequence is not always the primary focus of the action, it is expected in all three theories that the consequence should have a beneficial result as an outcome of the action. Whether the action is based on principle, values or virtues, the end should justify the means. Difference Between Theories The best way to express the differences between virtue theory, utilitarianism and deontological ethics is to take a common scenario and analyze from these three different perspectives. A good example to use would be a person having car trouble and has pulled their car on the side of the road. They are in obvious need of help. In committing the action of helping the person, an individual is acting on a moral or ethical duty. An individual who practices virtue theory ethics would point out that by helping the person, doing so would be a charitable act and would express good character of the person assisting the one in need. One who practices utilitarianism would say that by helping the person, doing so would be good for both the person in need and the person helping. A deontologist would say that by helping, it would be so in accordance to a moral rule, such as karma, or what you do to others will come back to you. (Hursthouse, 2010). As the example shows, virtue theory focuses on a person’s moral ethics, and not on any specific outcome or rule. Utilitarianism has an emphasis on the greater good, focusing on a beneficial outcome for all persons involved, where the consequences of acting are beneficial to a community. Finally, deontology emphasizes duty as specific action being done in completion of following a specific moral code, rule or command. In a previous job position, I had an ethical dilemma that required making a fair decision for all parties involved. It involved a quality assurance process for outbound marketing in a call center. There was a Spanish speaking division where the manager wanted a special call monitoring process just for the Spanish speakers. I decided against the process for the simple fact that the Spanish speakers did not say anything different or offer anything different than the non-Spanish speakers. The reason I chose to do this was to make the quality assurance process fair for all the call agents. If I had done the opposite, the non-Spanish speakers would have sought similar treatment. I consider this to be a utilitarian action for my ethical dilemma. References: Boylan, M. 2009. Basic Ethics. 2nd Edition. Pp. 153, 171 Garrett, J. (2005, November 28). Virtue ethics. Retrieved fromhttp://www. wku. edu/~jan. garrett/ethics/virtthry. htm Hursthouse, Rosalind, â€Å"Virtue Ethics†, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta  (ed. ),http://plato. stanford. edu/archives/win2010/entries/ethics-virtue

Zoonotic Diseases

Introduction Zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases which can be transmitted from animals to man. Due to frequent contact and domestication of wildlife animals, zoonotic diseases are increasingly becoming more prevalent. Public parks and gardens are home to abundant populations of birds. One of the most frequent species known to thrive in such areas are feral pigeon (Columba livia). Although there are few reports of disease transmission between pigeons and humans, their close interaction with humans and ability to carry zoonotic pathogens make them a public health risk.In fact, these birds are present at very high densities (2,000 individuals per km2) and can cover a maximum distance of 5. 29 km (Dickx et al. , 2010). This may result in the increase risk of pathogen transmission among other birds and potentially to humans. Studies have shown that most infected pigeons do not show signs of clinical disease. These birds may therefore pose a public health risk to the human population . Pigeons, like many other bird species, can harbor diseases that can be zoonotic in nature. One of the pathogens most frequently carried by pigeons is Chlamydophila psittaci. C. sittaci is an obligate intracellular bacterium that causes a disease in birds known as Psittacosis or Avian Chlamydiosis. Psittacosis is highly contagious and often causes influenza-like symptoms, severe pneumonia and non-respiratory health problems. Birds can shed this bacterium in the environment when they are either overtly ill or without any symptoms. C. psittaci occurs most frequently in psittacine birds such as parrots, macaws, parakeets. However, non-psittacine birds including pigeons, doves and mynah birds can also harbour the infectious agent (Greco, Corrente, & Martella, 2005).Therefore, pigeons are thought to be an underestimated source of human chlamydiosis. Studies have shown that pigeons pose a substantial zoonotic risk as are often shown to be naturally infected with a number of viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa that are pathogenic to humans. The potential for zoonotic infection is increased as these birds live in close contact with human beings. The aim of this overview is to present the zoonotic potential of C. psittaci in infected feral pigeon populations, in the context of its history, epidemiology and current approaches in treatment and prevention.Pigeon population in urban areas Commonly known as ‘urban’, ‘street’ or ‘city’ pigeons, the feral rock dove (C. livia) is an abundant bird species that often thrive in streets, squares and parks where they come into close contact with humans. Pigeon populations in most large cities increased worldwide after World War II. They have made contributions of considerable importance to humanity, especially in times of war. Feral pigeons have been domesticated and were put to use by making them messengers due to their homing abilities (Dickx et al. , 2010).Pigeons are one of the few animal species able to survive in our noisy and hectic cities. They are extremely adaptable, which also enables them to accept breeding places that are unnatural to them, e. g. on trees or over running ventilation systems (Magnino et al, 2009). They are also a valuable enrichment to the urban environment as they have a cleaning up function by eating discarded food. In addition, they may represent as a tourist attraction as feeding and care of feral pigeons may be rewarding spare-time activities for many people who enjoy the company of animals (Magnino et al, 2009).The extensive food supply and minimal predator population has indeed provided the ecological basis for the large populations that occur in most cities of the world. Chlamydophila psittaci in pigeons The increase of feral pigeon populations in many cities is a major cause of concern as they are a source of a large number of zoonotic agents. The most important pathogenic organism transmissible from feral pigeons to humans is Chlamydophila psittaci. In fact, studies in Europe have shown as high as 95. 6% seropositivity values for C. psittaci in feral pigeon populations (Magnino et al. 2009). C. psittaci an obligate intracellular bacterium causes avian chlamydiosis in birds and psittacosis in humans.The bacterium is commonly recognised in psittacine birds such as parrots, macaws, cockatoos and parakeets. It is also indentified in non-psittacine birds such as pigeons, doves and mynah birds (Greco, Corrente, & Martella, 2005). There are at least six distinct serovars (A to F) of C. psittaci considered endemic in birds (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). Each serovar appears to be associated, though not exclusively, with a different group or order of irds, from which it is most commonly isolated. Genotype B is the most prevalent in pigeons, but the more virulent genotypes A and D have also been discovered (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). All serovars should be considered to be readily transmissible to humans. The av ian strains can infect humans and other mammals, and may cause severe disease and even death. In contrast to the devastating explosive outbreaks in the first half of the 20th century, the present outbreaks are characterized by respiratory signs and low mortality (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009).Chlamydophila psittaci has been demonstrated in about 465 bird species comprising 30 different bird orders (Greco, Corrente, & Martella, 2005). The highest infection rates are found in psittacine birds and pigeons. The first case of C. psittaci zoonotic transmission from pigeons was described in 1941. A mother and her daughter had picked up a sick feral pigeon in the street in New York City. The pigeon died after four days and, two weeks later, both mother and daughter developed psittacosis with fever and pneumonia (Dickx et al. , 2010).Since then, 47 zoonotic cases linked to pigeons have been reported (Dickx et al. , 2010). As a consequence, feral pigeon populations have been r epeatedly blamed as vectors for the transmission of C. psittaci infections to humans. Caution is needed, as zoonotic transmission from feral pigeons is known to be an underestimated source of infection. Psittacosis in birds Transmission of C. psittaci primarily occurs from one infected bird to another susceptible bird in close proximity. The agent is usually excreted in faeces and nasal discharges.From time to time, faecal shedding occurs and can be activated through stress caused by nutritional deficiencies, prolonged transport, overcrowding, chilling, breeding, egg laying, treatment or handling (Vanrompay et al. , 2007). Bacterial excretion periods during natural infection can vary depending on virulence of the strain, infection dose and host immune status. The most common routes of transmission of C. psittaci in nature are the inhalation and ingestion of contaminated material and, sometimes, ingestion (Vanrompay et al. , 2007). The bacterium can be also transmitted in the nest.In many species, such as columbiformes, transmission from parent to young may occur through feeding, by regurgitation, while the contamination of the nesting site with infective faeces are also important sources of infection (Vazquez et al. , 2010). Also the transmission of C. psittaci may also be facilitated by arthropod vectors in the nest environment, but its occurrence has not been assessed in the wild. Vertical transmission has been demonstrated in other types of avian species. However, occurrence appears to be fairly low. Chlamydiosis is a common chronic infection of pigeons.C. psittaci infection may result in lethargy, anorexia, ruffled feathers, ocular and nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, diarrhea and excretion of green to yellow urates (West, 2011). Most infected feral pigeons are asymptomatic and latent carriers of C. psittaci, which makes it difficult to assess the risk of transmission of the bacterium to other animals, including humans. As mentioned earlier, increased shed ding of the infectious agents may be triggered by stress factors such as other concurrent infections or infestations, lack of food, breeding and overcrowding.It is important to note that as the density of nesting and roosting pigeons increases, the quality of life in the feral pigeon population deteriorates (Dickx et al. , 2010). In fact, excessive population density activates and stimulates regulation mechanisms that decimate nestlings and juvenile pigeons with infectious and parasitic diseases (Hedemma et al. , 2006). Crowded breeding places make pigeons behave more aggressively, which again mostly affects nestlings and juveniles that are the weakest members of the population, leading to a progressive spoiling of their physical condition.Thus, it is important for feral pigeon populations to be managed carefully in the urban environment to obtain an appropriate- sized and healthy population. Psittacosis in humans Although psittacine birds are the major source of human infection, ou tbreaks due to exposure to non-psittacine birds may also occur. The more common of these are due to exposure to pigeons, both wild and domestic. Humans most often become infected by inhaling the organism when urine, respiratory secretions or dried faeces of infected birds are dispersed in the air as very fine droplets or dust particles (Smith et al. , 2011).Other sources of exposure include mouth-to-beak contact, a bite from an infected bird or handling the plumage and tissues of infected birds (Smith et al. , 2011). A study by Smith et al. (2011) suggests that more than half of the human cases were due to exposure to C. psittaci through contaminated dust, direct contact with pigeons through feeding and handling pigeons. In addition, about 40 of the cases resulted from transient contacts with feral pigeons such as eating lunch in a park frequented by pigeons, walking through a pigeon flock, and living in a neighbourhood frequented by pigeons (Vazquez et al. 2010). The disease in hum ans varies from a flu-like syndrome to a severe systemic disease with pneumonia and possibly encephalitis. The disease is rarely fatal in patients treated promptly and correctly. The incubation period is usually 5–14 days, but longer incubation periods are known (Smith et al. , 2011). Common symptoms of infection in humans include headache, chills, malaise and myalgia, with or without signs of respiratory involvement (Smith et al. , 2011). Therefore, awareness of the danger and early diagnosis are important. Transmission of psittacosis from human to human is rare but can occur.Transmission from humans to birds has not been documented. Diagnoses The diagnosis of C. psittaci infections in birds can be a problem because of the occurrence of persistent infections in non-shedding clinically healthy birds. Isolation of C. psittaci is currently regarded as the standard method for the determination of active infections of birds. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques have been al so used to detect C. psittaci in samples of tissues, feces and respiratory specimens, and were found to be quite sensitive and rapid. Diagnoses can also be established by clinical presentation and positive antibodies against C. sittaci using microimmunoflourescence (MIF) methods (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). Conventional ELISA tests have been developed for detecting antibodies to C. psittaci in birds, however, it tends to sensitivity and specificity. Treatment No commercial vaccine is available for avian chlamydiosis. Antibiotic treatment of birds is the usual response to known infections. Tetracyclines are usually considered the drugs of choice although quinolones or macrolides have also been used (Tully, 2001). Chlortetracycline (CTC) is given on food depending on the bird species to be treated and type of food (Tully, 2001).Another drug that has also proved to be effective is doxycycline, which has been used for injecting and to treat bird food/ drinking water. Tetracycline antibio tics are the drug of choice for C. psittaci infection in humans. Mild to moderate cases can be treated with oral doxycycline or tetracycline hydrochloride (West, 2011). Severely ill patients should be treated with intravenous (IV) doxycycline hyclate. Treatment with antimicrobial drugs in humans usually lasts for 3 weeks while birds are treated for 45 days. Most C. psittaci infections are responsive to antibiotics within 1 to 2 days, however relapses can occur (Seth-Smith et al. 2011). Therefore sensible use of these drugs is very important, to prevent the development of drug-resistant bacterial strains Prevention Management of feral pigeon populations in the urban environment is a complex issue that requires careful planning. Education initiatives to communicate the health risks and recommendations for minimizing these risks should primarily be directed at susceptible groups such as the elderly, young children, immunosupressed individuals, homeless, and occupationally exposed group s (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009).Children should be warned not to handle sick or dead pigeons and immunocompromised individuals should be educated to carefully limit their contact with feral pigeons. Strict hygienic procedures should also be enforced when dealing with birds. Pigeon feeders should be encouraged to stop or limit their activity by implementing a feeding ban in defined urban areas (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009). Furthermore, preservation of urban hygiene is very important and should be included in the aims of administrators and health officials, as it will lead to a reduced and healthier feral pigeon population (Vazquez et al. , 2010).The relationship between feeding, overcrowding, and the deterioration of living conditions of pigeons, should be the main focus when educating the general public. Monitoring for C. psittaci infections over time, by direct detection of the organism and/or by specific antibody testing, should also be considered in tho se who are in frequent close contact with bird puplations (ie. occupationally exposed workers) (Smith et al. , 2011). In addition, preventive measures such as wearing protective clothes with hoods, boots, gloves and air filter face masks should be worn when removing pigeon faeces from roofs, attics and/or buildings.Finally, for the sake of animal protection, visibly sick birds should be captured and taken into veterinary care where they should be appropriately treated with effective drugs such as tetracyclines, quinolones or macrolides (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). . Conclusion Feral pigeons, more commonly known as ‘urban’ or ‘city’ pigeons, are present in both urban and rural areas all over the world. Due to frequent and close contact with people, pigeons are a public health concern as they are a source of many zoonotic agents.In particular Chlamydophila psittaci, a bacterium known to cause psittacosis in both birds and humans (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanro mpay, 2009). Due to the growing population of pigeons, contact with infected pigeons or pathogen transmission is greatly increased. The infectious agent can be easily transmitted to humans through inhalation of contaminated dust and aerosols from infected pigeons or their feces. Once infected, people suffer from various conditions including mild influenza-like symptoms or severe pneumonia.In addition, the huge increase of feral pigeon populations in many cities is a major cause of concern due to the detrimental effect of pigeon droppings on environmental hygiene. Therefore it is important to monitor the health of both city bird populations and humans who come in close contact with possibly infected birds. As well, awareness and preventative measures must be taken into consideration when handling infected birds or their feces. Furthermore, management of feral population and preservation of urban hygiene is very important in controlling psittacosis. Work Cited Aundria West.A brief rev iew of Chlamydophila psittaci in birds and humans. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine. 2011. 20:18–2. 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